Time-distance helioseismology: Sensitivity of f-mode travel times to flows

Time-distance helioseismology has shown that f-mode travel times contain information about horizontal flows in the Sun. The purpose of this study is to provide a simple interpretation of these travel times. We study the interaction of surface-gravity waves with horizontal flows in an incompressible, plane-parallel solar atmosphere. We show that for uniform flows less than roughly 250 m s$^{-1}$, the travel-time shifts are linear in the flow amplitude. For stronger flows, perturbation theory up to third order is needed to model waveforms. The case of small-amplitude spatially-varying flows is treated using the first-order Born approximation. We derive two-dimensional Fr\'{e}chet kernels that give the sensitivity of travel-time shifts to local flows. We show that the effect of flows on travel times depends on wave damping and on the direction from which the observations are made. The main physical effect is the advection of the waves by the flow rather than the advection of wave sources or the effect of flows on wave damping. We compare the two-dimensional sensitivity kernels with simplified three-dimensional kernels that only account for wave advection and assume a vertical line of sight. We find that the three-dimensional f-mode kernels approximately separate in the horizontal and vertical coordinates, with the horizontal variations given by the simplified two-dimensional kernels. This consistency between quite different models gives us confidence in the usefulness of these kernels for interpreting quiet-Sun observations.Comment: 34 pages, accepted to Astrophysical Journa

Linear Sensitivity of Helioseismic Travel Times to Local Flows

Time-distance helioseismology is a technique for measuring the time for waves to travel from one point on the solar surface to another. These wave travel times are affected by advection by subsurface flows. Inferences of plasma flows based on observed travel times depend critically on the ability to accurately model the effects of subsurface flows on time-distance measurements. We present a Born approximation based computation of the sensitivity of time distance travel times to weak, steady, inhomogeneous subsurface flows. Three sensitivity functions are obtained, one for each component of the 3D vector flow. We show that the depth sensitivity of travel times to horizontally uniform flows is given approximately by the kinetic energy density of the oscillation modes which contribute to the travel times. For flows with strong depth dependence, the Born approximation can give substantially different results than the ray approximation.Comment: 6 pages, 6 figure

Surface-effect corrections for oscillation frequencies of evolved stars

Accurate modelling of solar-like oscillators requires that modelled mode frequencies are corrected for the systematic shift caused by improper modelling of the near-surface layers, known as the surface effect. ... We investigate how much additional uncertainty is introduced to stellar model parameters by our uncertainty about the functional form of the surface effect. At the same time, we test whether any of the parametrizations is significantly better or worse at modelling observed subgiants and low-luminosity red giants. We model six stars observed by Kepler that show clear mixed modes. We fix the input physics of the stellar models and vary the choice of surface correction ... Models using a solar-calibrated power law correction consistently fit the observations more poorly than the other four corrections. Models with the remaining four corrections generally fit ... about equally well, with the combined surface correction by Ball & Gizon perhaps being marginally superior. The fits broadly agree on the model parameters within about the $2\sigma$ uncertainties, with discrepancies between the modified Lorentzian and free power law corrections occasionally exceeding the $3\sigma$ level. Relative to the best-fitting values, the total uncertainties on the masses, radii and ages of the stars are all less than 2, 1 and 6 per cent, respectively. A solar-calibrated power law ... appears unsuitable for use with more evolved solar-like oscillators. Among the remaining surface corrections, the uncertainty in the model parameters introduced by the surface effects is about twice as large as the uncertainty in the individual fits for these six stars. Though the fits are thus somewhat less certain because of our uncertainty of how to manage the surface effect, these results also demonstrate that it is feasible to model the individual mode frequencies of subgiants and low-luminosity red giants. ...Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics. 13 pages, 6 figures, 5 tables. Abstract slightly abridged to meet arXiv's 1920 character limi

Convectively stabilised background solar models for local helioseismology

In local helioseismology numerical simulations of wave propagation are useful to model the interaction of solar waves with perturbations to a background solar model. However, the solution to the equations of motions include convective modes that can swamp the waves we are interested in. For this reason, we choose to first stabilise the background solar model against convection by altering the vertical pressure gradient. Here we compare the eigenmodes of our convectively stabilised model with a standard solar model (Model S) and find a good agreement.Comment: 3 pages, 3 figures, HELAS NA3, The Acoustic Solar Cycle, Birmingham, 6-8 January 200

SLiM: a code for the simulation of wave propagation through an inhomogeneous, magnetised solar atmosphere

In this paper we describe the semi-spectral linear MHD (SLiM) code which we have written to follow the interaction of linear waves through an inhomogeneous three-dimensional solar atmosphere. The background model allows almost arbitrary perturbations of density, temperature, sound speed as well as magnetic and velocity fields. We give details of several of the tests we have used to check the code. The code will be useful in understanding the helioseismic signatures of various solar features, including sunspots.Comment: 6 pages, 7 figure

Validated helioseismic inversions for 3-D vector flows

According to time-distance helioseismology, information about internal fluid motions is encoded in the travel times of solar waves. The inverse problem consists of inferring 3-D vector flows from a set of travel-time measurements. Here we investigate the potential of time-distance helioseismology to infer 3-D convective velocities in the near-surface layers of the Sun. We developed a new Subtractive Optimally Localised Averaging (SOLA) code suitable for pipeline pseudo-automatic processing. Compared to its predecessor, the code was improved by accounting for additional constraints in order to get the right answer within a given noise level. The main aim of this study is to validate results obtained by our inversion code. We simulate travel-time maps using a snapshot from a numerical simulation of solar convective flows, realistic Born travel-time sensitivity kernels, and a realistic model of travel-time noise. These synthetic travel times are inverted for flows and the results compared with the known input flow field. Additional constraints are implemented in the inversion: cross-talk minimization between flow components and spatial localization of inversion coefficients. Using modes f, p1 through p4, we show that horizontal convective flow velocities can be inferred without bias, at a signal-to-noise ratio greater than one in the top 3.5 Mm, provided that observations span at least four days. The vertical component of velocity (v_z), if it were to be weak, is more difficult to infer and is seriously affected by cross-talk from horizontal velocity components. We emphasise that this cross-talk must be explicitly minimised in order to retrieve v_z in the top 1 Mm. We also show that statistical averaging over many different areas of the Sun allows for reliably measuring of average properties of all three flow components in the top 5.5 Mm of the convection zone.Comment: 14 pages main paper, 9 pages electronic supplement, 28 figures. Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysic

SLiM: a code for the simulation of wave propagation through an inhomogeneous, magnetised solar atmosphere

In this paper we describe the semi-spectral linear MHD (SLiM) code which we have written to follow the interaction of linear waves through an inhomogeneous three-dimensional solar atmosphere. The background model allows almost arbitrary perturbations of density, temperature, sound speed as well as magnetic and velocity fields. We give details of several of the tests we have used to check the code. The code will be useful in understanding the helioseismic signatures of various solar features, including sunspots.Comment: 6 pages, 7 figure

Helioseismology of Sunspots: Confronting Observations with Three-Dimensional MHD Simulations of Wave Propagation

The propagation of solar waves through the sunspot of AR 9787 is observed using temporal cross-correlations of SOHO/MDI Dopplergrams. We then use three-dimensional MHD numerical simulations to compute the propagation of wave packets through self-similar magneto-hydrostatic sunspot models. The simulations are set up in such a way as to allow a comparison with observed cross-covariances (except in the immediate vicinity of the sunspot). We find that the simulation and the f-mode observations are in good agreement when the model sunspot has a peak field strength of 3 kG at the photosphere, less so for lower field strengths. Constraining the sunspot model with helioseismology is only possible because the direct effect of the magnetic field on the waves has been fully taken into account. Our work shows that the full-waveform modeling of sunspots is feasible.Comment: 21 pages, Accepted in Solar Physic

F-mode sensitivity kernels for flows

We compute f-mode sensitivity kernels for flows. Using a two-dimensional model, the scattered wavefield is calculated in the first Born approximation. We test the correctness of the kernels by comparing an exact solution (constant flow), a solution linearized in the flow, and the total integral of the kernel. In practice, the linear approximation is acceptable for flows as large as about 400 m/s.Comment: 4 pages, 3 figures. Proceedings of SOHO18/GONG 2006/HELAS I. Beyond the Spherical Sun: A new era of helio- and asteroseismology. Sheffield, England. August, 200